• There are four main areas or channels in which children grow: physical, psychological and cognitive, social and emotional, and sexuality and gender identity.
• Children's bodies grow in height and weight over the years and change appearance during puberty.
• Children also develop certain physical abilities during their progression towards adulthood, including crawling, walking, running and (possibly) writing or shooting a basketball.
• Children develop psychologically and cognitively as their brains absorb more information and they learn how to use that information.
• Children grow socially and emotionally and they learn how to interact, play, work, and live with other people such as family, friends, teachers, and employers.
• They learn how to understand both their own feelings and others' emotions and ways of dealing with strong emotions.
• Children must develop a sense of self-esteem as they go through the long process of figuring out what shape their identity, or who they are, will take.
• They also develop a sense of morality as they learn the difference between right and wrong.
• Finally, children have to develop sexually and form a gender identity.
• Early on, children learn how their bodies work and look and what it means to be a boy or a girl; they learn how boys and girls are different.
• As they grow older and enter adolescence and puberty, they continue to learn how their bodies work sexually and how to responsibly handle their sexuality so as to balance their sexual desires and appropriate behavior.

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• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how their personalities developed and whether or not they would end up well-adjusted as adults.
• Freud described children as going through multiple stages of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
• In Freud's view, each stage focused on sexual activity and the pleasure received from a particular area of the body.
• In the oral phase, children are focused on the pleasures that they receive from sucking and biting with their mouth.
• In the Anal phase, this focus shifts to the anus as they begin toilet training and attempt to control their bowels.
• In the Phallic stage, the focus moves to genital stimulation and the sexual identification that comes with having or not having a penis.
• Another part of Freud's theory focused on identifying the parts of consciousness.
• Freud thought that all babies are initially dominated by unconscious, instinctual and selfish urges for immediate gratification which he labeled the Id.
• As babies attempt and fail to get all their whims met, they develop a more realistic appreciation of what is realistic and possible, which Freud called the "Ego".
• Over time, babies also learn about and come to internalize and represent their parents' values and rules, which he called the "Super-Ego."
• The Super-Ego is the basis for the the child's conscience that struggles with the concepts of right and wrong and works with the Ego to control the immediate gratification urges of the Id.
• By today's rigorous scientific standards, Freud's psychosexual theory is not considered to be very accurate, but it is still important and influential today because it was the first stage development theory that gained real attention, and many other theorists used it as a starting place.

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• Erik Erikson (1902-1994) used Freud's work as a starting place to develop a theory about human stage development from birth to death.
• Erikson focused on how peoples\' sense of identity develops; how people develop or fail to develop abilities and beliefs about themselves which allow them to become productive, satisfied members of society.
• Because Erikson's theory combines how people develop beliefs psychologically and mentally with how they learn to exist within a larger community of people, it's called a 'psychosocial' theory.
• Erikson's stages are, in chronological order in which they unfold: trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; industry versus inferiority; identity versus identity confusion; intimacy versus isolation; generativity versus stagnation; and integrity versus despair.
• Each stage is associated with a time of life and a general age span.
• For each stage, Erikson's theory explains what types of stimulation children need to master that stage and become productive and well-adjusted members of society and explains the types of problems and developmental delays that can result when this stimulation does not occur.

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• Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) described three stages of moral development which described the process through which people learn to discriminate right from wrong and to develop increasingly sophisticated appreciations of morality.
• Kohlberg believed that his stages were cumulative and that each built off understanding and abilities gained in prior stages.
• According to Kohlberg, moral development is a lifelong task, and many people fail to develop the more advanced stages of moral understanding.
• Kohlberg's first 'preconventional' level describes children whose understanding of morality is essentially only driven by consequences.
• Second stage 'conventional' morality describes people who act in moral ways because they believe that following the rules is the best way to promote good personal relationships and a healthy community.
• The final 'postconventional' level describes people who instead of just following rules without questioning them, determine what is moral based on a set of values or beliefs they think are right all the time.

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• Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1990), created a cognitive-developmental stage theory that described how children's ways of thinking developed as they interacted with the world around them.
• Piaget's theory has four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
• During the sensorimotor stage, which often lasts from birth to age two, children are just beginning to learn how to learn. The major tasks occurring during this period involve children figuring out how to make use of their bodies, which they do by experiencing everything with their five senses.
• During the preoperational stage, which often lasts from ages two though seven, children start to use mental symbols to understand and to interact with the world, and they begin to learn language and to engage in pretend play.
• In the concrete operational stage that follows, lasting from ages seven through eleven, children gain the ability to think logically to solve problems and to organize information they learn.
• During the formal operational stage, which often lasts from age eleven on, adolescents learn how to think more abstractly to solve problems and to think symbolically (for example, about things that aren't really there concretely in front of them).

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• Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops.
• He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.
• The microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in and includes any immediate relationships or organizations they interacts with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or daycare.
• The mesosystem describes how the different parts of a child's microsystem work together for the sake of the child.
• The exosystem level includes the other people and places that the child herself may not interact with often herself but that still have a large effect on her, such as parents' workplaces, extended family members, the neighborhood, etc.
• The macrosystem is the largest and most remote set of people and things to a child but which still has a great influence over the child, such as the relative freedoms permitted by the national government, cultural values, the economy, wars, etc.

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